[226][227] In particular various authors, like Marija Gimbutas, had noted important similarities between Proto-Villanova, the South-German Urnfield culture of Bavaria-Upper Austria[228] and Middle-Danube Urnfield culture. The Kurgan hypothesis postulates that the Proto-Indo-Europeans were the bearers of the Kurgan culture of the Black Sea and the Caucasus and west of the Urals.The hypothesis was introduced by Marija Gimbutas in 1956, combining kurgan archaeology with linguistics to locate the origins of the Proto-Indo-European (PIE)-speaking peoples. Herds needed to be moved frequently to feed them sufficiently, and the use of wagons and horse-back riding made this possible, leading to "a new, more mobile form of pastoralism". [228][229][230] According to David W. Anthony, proto-Latins originated in today's eastern Hungary, kurganized around 3100 BCE by the Yamnaya culture,[231] while Kristian Kristiansen associated the Proto-Villanovans with the Velatice-Baierdorf culture of Moravia and Austria. [279] The first account of Illyrian peoples comes from the Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax, an ancient Greek text of the middle of the 4th century BCE that describes coastal passages in the Mediterranean. Many of these invaders settled in Anatolia, in some cases causing the extinction of the Anatolian languages. to the 5th century A.D. is indeed a glorious period. [263] (2018), aDNA studies in Anatolia "show no indication of a large-scale intrusion of a steppe population", but do "fit the recently developed consensus among linguists and historians that the speakers of the Anatolian languages established themselves in Anatolia by gradual infiltration and cultural assimilation. We can be reasonably certain that their divergence post-dated the invention of wheeled vehicles, for which we can construct five separate roots (two for wheels, one for travel by wheeled vehicle, one for . The Anatolians were a group of distinct Indo-European peoples who spoke the Anatolian languages and shared a common culture. [1], The Indo-Hittite hypothesis postulates a common predecessor which both the Anatolian languages and the other Indo-European languages came from, called Proto-Indo-Hittite. "In the following discussion of 'Iranian peoples', the term 'Iranian' may be understood in two ways. [82][34][note 14] The resulting culture contributed to the Sredny Stog culture,[110] a predecessor of the Yamnaya culture. The team members of the Roopkund study planned a variety of tests for the bones. The first audio recording of the Albanian language was made by Norbert Jokl on 4 April 1914 in Vienna.[288]. [283] The name Illyrians seems to be the name applied to a specific Illyrian tribe, which was the first to come in contact with the ancient Greeks during the Bronze Age,[284] causing the name Illyrians to be applied to all people of similar language and customs.[285]. According to Anthony, the roots of Proto-Indo-European (archaic or proto-proto-Indo-European) were mainly in the steppe rather than the south. 33572162 BC: (1) Greek-Armenian, (2) Albanian, (3) Italic-Germanic-Celtic, (4) Balto-SlavicIndo-Iranian. However, given that the glottalic theory never caught on and there was little archaeological support, the Gamkrelidze and Ivanov theory did not gain support until Renfrew's Anatolian theory revived aspects of their proposal.[19]. Research by Haak et al. In Central Asia, the Turkic languages have marginalized Iranian languages as a result of the Turkic expansion of the early centuries CE. [220], According to Herrin, the Germanic peoples are believed to have emerged about 1800 BCE with the Nordic Bronze Age (c.1700-500 BCE). In Europe previously, Gimbutas hypothesized, men and women held relatively equal places in a peaceful, female-centered, goddess-worshipping societyas evidenced by the famous fertility figurines of the time. The pits into which they are said to have sunk are still visible high on a mountainside. Decline and end of the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture - Wikipedia Arguments for the identification of the Proto-Indo-Europeans as steppe nomads from the PonticCaspian region had already been made in the 19th century by the German scholars, Theodor Benfey (1869) and Victor Hehn[de] (1870), followed notably by Otto Schrader (1883, 1890). [47] It is understood as a migration of Yamnaya people to Europe, as military victors, successfully imposing a new administrative system, language and religion upon the indigenous groups, who are referred to by Gimbutas as Old Europeans. [122] The Samara culture (early 5th millennium BCE),[note 15] north of the Khvalynsk culture, interacted with the Khvalynsk culture,[123] while the archaeological findings seem related to those of the Dniepr-Donets II culture. Fiedel contends that the mitochondrial DNA lineages and the Y-chromosomal DNA lineages of the Roopkund B group are rare or absent in the population of the Greek islands, but are relatively common in Armenians and other peoples of the Caucasus. [19][22], Gramkelidze and Ivanov, using the now largely unsupported glottalic theory of Indo-European phonology, also proposed Semitic borrowings into Proto-Indo-European, suggesting a more southern homeland to explain these borrowings. [30][82][note 9]. Kurgan hypothesis - Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dacians were the ancient inhabitants of Dacia, located in the area in and around the Carpathian Mountains and west of the Black Sea. Proposals for its origins point to both the eastern Khvalynsk and the western Sredny Stog culture;[43] according to Anthony it originated in the Don-Volga area at ca. In places a continuity between Funnelbeaker and Corded Ware can be demonstrated, whereas in other areas Corded Ware heralds a new culture and physical type. Under a slab of rock, the team found the remains of a woman, bent double. Meanwhile, the Phrygian Kingdom was overwhelmed by Cimmerian invaders around 690 BCE, then briefly conquered by its neighbour Lydia, before it passed successively into the Persian Empire of Cyrus the Great and the empire of Alexander and his successors, was taken by the Attalids of Pergamon, and eventually became part of the Roman Empire. [40] Migrations southward may have founded the Maykop culture,[41] but the Maykop origins could also have been in the Caucasus. ", "Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe. Also included are prehistorian Marcel Otte (Universit de Lige) and anthropologist Henry Harpending (University of Utah). [136] According to Anthony, descendants of archaic Proto-Indo-European steppe herders, who moved into the lower Danube valley about 42004000 BCE, later moved into Anatolia, at an unknown time, but maybe as early as 3,000 BCE. Discover world-changing science. Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology, but basing their work on comparative vocabulary, a number of researchers have attempted to estimate the dates of the splitting up of the various Indo-European languages. [312] From the Chinese term Wusun, Beckwith reconstructs the Old Chinese *swin, which he compares to the Old Indo-Aryan avin "the horsemen", the name of the Rigvedic twin equestrian gods. Indo-European migrations - Wikipedia [40], The Indo-European eastward expansion in the 2nd millennium BCE had a significant influence on Chinese culture,[148] introducing the chariot,[web 12] horse burials,[web 13][149] the domesticated horse,[148][150] iron technology,[148][web 14] and wheeled vehicles,[151][152][153][154] fighting styles, head-and-hoof rituals, art motifs and myths. We need to be able to talk about these differences clearly, whatever they may be. Identifications are made on the basis of how well, if at all, the projected migration routes and times of migration fit the distribution of Indo-European languages, and how closely the sociological model of the original society reconstructed from Proto-Indo-European lexical items fits the archaeological profile. Due to the archaic elements preserved in the now extinct Anatolian languages, they may be a "cousin" of Proto-Indo-European, instead of a "daughter", but Anatolian is generally regarded as an early offshoot of the Indo-European language group.[1]. Centuries-old communities speaking Albanian-based dialects can be found scattered in Greece, southern Italy,[286] Sicily, and Ukraine. Many other social and cultural forces were at play. Anatolian hypothesis - Wikipedia But his research showed that as recently as eight thousand years ago there were at least four distinct groups of Europeans, as genetically different from one another as the British are from the Chinese today, some with brown skin color. In the Iberian study, the predominant Y chromosome seems to have originated with a group called the Yamnaya, who arose about five thousand years ago, in the steppes north of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. In this scenario, an enclave of migrants to India never admixed with South Asians, and retained their genetic heritage. PIE was the first proposed proto-language to be widely accepted by linguists. Scholars estimate that PIE may have been spoken as a single language (before divergence began) around 3500 BCE, though estimates by different authorities can vary by more than a millennium. 2008. Roopkund A had ancestry typical of South Asians. 9 (2013), pp. The king, who liked his entertainments, took along a bevy of dancing courtesans and musicians, in violation of the ascetic traditions of the pilgrimage. The Reich lab, the foremost unit in the country for research into ancient DNA, is responsible for more than half the worlds published data in the field. The rapidly developing fields of archaeogenetics and genetic genealogy since the late 1990s have not only confirmed a migratory pattern out of the Pontic Steppe at the relevant time[6][7][8][24] but also suggest the possibility that the population movement involved was more substantial than earlier anticipated[6] and invasive.[24][25]. Between 4500 and 2500 BCE, this "horizon", which includes several distinctive cultures culminating in the Yamnaya culture, spread out over the Pontic steppes, and outside into Europe and Asia. O Pritsak; 1981; pp 14, 2728. [6][7] David Anthony states that "Childe (1953:133-38) and Gimbutas (1963) speculated that migrants from the steppe Yamnaya horizon (33002600 BCE) might have been the creators of the Corded Ware culture and carried IE languages into Europe from the steppes. Roopkund C was a lone individual whose genome was typical of Southeast Asia. [web 10]. Far more work has gone into reconstructing it than any other proto-language and it is by far the most well-understood of all proto-languages of its age. [114] The adjacent BugDniester culture (63005500 BCE) was a local culture, from where cattle breeding spread to the steppe peoples. [155][web 15] These two groups were in competition with each other until the latter overcame the former. [181] Danish archaeologist Kristian Kristiansen said he is "increasingly convinced there must have been a kind of genocide. Welsh is the only Celtic language not classified as "endangered" by UNESCO. They mixed with EHG-people from the northern Volga steppes, forming the Khvalynsk culture, which "might represent the oldest phase of PIE.". [275], Indo-Europeanization was complete by the beginning of the Bronze Age. The closest match was with people from the Greek island of Crete. David Anthony's "Revised Steppe theory", derived from Gimbutas' pioneering work,[1] placing the Indo-European homeland in the Pontic steppe, more specifically, between the Dniepr (Ukraine) and the Ural river (Russia), of the Chalcolithic period (4th to 5th millennia BCE),[75] where various related cultures developed. His armies traversed the Indus plains and reached as far as the Beas River before turning back. [135] It is likely that their arrival was one of gradual settlement and not as an invading army. Exhausted and feverish, Sax barely made it back to Wan with his companions, and spent ten days recovering in his guides stone hut. The lands of the Anatolian peoples were successively invaded by a number of peoples and empires at high frequency: the Phrygians, Bithynians, the Medes, the Persians, the Greeks, the Galatian Celts, Romans and the Oghuz Turks. Since the bones at the lake were not collected systematically, the finding hinted that the Mediterranean group in total might have been quite large. (2018) note that the Caucasus served as a corridor for gene flow between the steppe and cultures south of the Caucasus during the Eneolithic and the Bronze Age, stating that this "opens up the possibility of a homeland of PIE south of the Caucasus." It is the DNA of billions of microbes that colonized the body during the decomposition after death. [254] Among the Baltic peoples are modern Lithuanians, Latvians (including Latgalians) all Eastern Balts as well as the Old Prussians, Yotvingians and Galindians the Western Balts whose people also survived, but their languages and cultures are now extinct, and are now being assimilated into the Eastern Baltic community. [21] According to Kortlandt, "Indo-European is a branch of Indo-Uralic which was radically transformed under the influence of a North Caucasian substratum when its speakers moved from the area north of the Caspian Sea to the area north of the Black Sea. The people of these cultures were nomadic pastoralists, who, according to the model, by the early 3rd millennium BC had expanded throughout the PonticCaspian steppe and into Eastern Europe. When it was first proposed in 1956, in The Prehistory of Eastern Europe, Part1, Gimbutas's contribution to the search for Indo-European origins was an interdisciplinary synthesis of archaeology and linguistics. "[208], The Bell Beaker-culture (c. 29001800 BCE[210][211]) may be ancestral to proto-Celtic,[212] which spread westward from the Alpine regions and formed a "North-west Indo-European" Sprachbund with Italic, Germanic and Balto-Slavic. [145] The earliest of these dates has now been rejected, giving a date of around 3300 BCE for the start of the culture. Its long been known that, from around 2500 to 2000 B.C., major new artistic and cultural styles flourished in Western and Central Europe. (2015), German Corded Ware "trace ~75% of their ancestry to the Yamna. Again and again, Ive found my own biases and expectations to be wrong, he said. The women consider themselves to be keepers of the goddesss memory, and Sax had recorded and translated many of their songs and stories of the pilgrimage. [34] He points out: The Kurgan culture was so broadly defined that almost any culture with burial mounds, or even (like the Baden culture) without them could be included. 4000 and 3000 BCE, Neolithic populations in western Europe declined, probably due to the plague and other viral hemorrhagic fevers. [22] As used by Gimbutas, the term "kurganized" implied that the culture could have been spread by no more than small bands who imposed themselves on local people as an elite. Two centuries before Christ, parts of northern India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan formed the Indo-Greek Kingdom, the easternmost state of the Hellenic world. Gimbutas traced the language back to the Yamnaya people, herders from the. This view is held especially by those archaeologists who posit an original homeland of vast extent and immense time depth. It extends along the area from the Taman Peninsula at the Kerch Strait to near the modern border of Dagestan and southwards to the Kura River. A northern move incorporated the southern coast of Armorica. They brought with them a language that is the root of many of those spoken todayincluding English, Spanish, Hindi, Russian and Persian. While the Armenian hypothesis has been criticized on archeological and chronological grounds, recent genetic research has revived debate. [web 7], The Hittites, who established an extensive empire in the Middle East in the 2nd millennium BCE, are by far the best-known members of the Anatolian group. Although the Hurrian language is non-Indo-European, yet there are certain names and words found in the texts which suggest an Indo-Aryan influence. The view of a Pontic origin was still strongly supported, including by the archaeologists V. Gordon Childe[15] and Ernst Wahle. By signing up, you agree to our User Agreement and Privacy Policy & Cookie Statement. 220 134 Related Topics Europe Place 134 comments Best [deleted] 3 yr. ago It should say Germanic, not German. Her view, known as the Kurgan hypothesisnamed for the distinctive burial mounds that spread west across Europeis now the most widely accepted theory about Indo-European linguistic origins . According to Ayushi Nayak, who performed the isotopic bone analyses at the Max Planck Institute, Hindu pilgrims sometimes go barefoot and thinly clothed to sacred sites in the Himalayas as a spiritual challenge. Nanda Devi cursed the kingdom, unleashing drought and disaster, and infesting the milk and rice with maggots. He went on to write a doctoral thesis about the local traditions surrounding Nanda Devi. [135] Although those archaic PIE-speakers had wagons, they probably reached Anatolia before Indo-Europeans had learned to use chariots for war. In contrast, the Anatolian . [1] It is probably the archaeological manifestation of the Indo-Iranian language group. [23] The question of further Indo-Europeanization of Central and Western Europe, Central Asia and Northern India during the Bronze Age is beyond the scope of the Kurgan hypothesis, and far more uncertain than the events of the Copper Age, and subject to some controversy. The Maykop culture, c.37003000 BCE,[139] was a major Bronze Age archaeological culture in the Western Caucasus region of Southern Russia. Perhaps, the Roopkund researchers thought, there might be a tribe or a group in India descended from Greeks. All rights reserved. The Proto-Indo-Europeans were the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE), a reconstructed prehistoric language of Eurasia. The Kushan empire stretched from Turfan in the Tarim Basin to Pataliputra on the Gangetic plain at its greatest extent, and played an important role in the development of the Silk Road and the transmission of Buddhism to China. "[30] According to Piazza and Cavalli-Sforza (2006), the Yamna-culture may have been derived from Middle Eastern Neolithic farmers who migrated to the Pontic steppe and developed pastoral nomadism. This area extended over most of the Balkans region, and the Getae north of the Danube as far as beyond the Bug and including Panonia in the west.[265]. The Proto-Indo-Europeans were likely to have lived during the late Neolithic, or roughly the 4th millennium BCE. "[30] According to them, the Hittites lacked steppe-ancestry, arguing that "the Anatolian clade of IE languages did not derive from a large-scale Copper Age/Early Bronze Age population movement from the steppe," contrary Anthony's proposal of a large-scale migration via the Balkan as proposed in 2007. 3400 BCE. A simpler explanation would be that the Roopkund B bones somehow got mixed up while sitting in storage. Between 3100 and 2600 BCE the Yamnaya people spread into the Danube Valley as far as Hungary. [20] The Kurgan archaeological culture or cultural horizon comprises the various cultures of the PonticCaspian steppe in the Copper Age to Early Bronze Age (5th to 3rd millennia BC), identified by similar artifacts and structures, but subject to inevitable imprecision and uncertainty. Among these are the names of gods (Indra, Mitra, Varuna, and Agni) and some personal names. When I visited, a technician was working on a nubbin of bone from an ancient Roman who lived in Belgium. Gimbutas believed that the expansions of the Kurgan culture were a series of essentially-hostile military incursions in which a new warrior culture imposed itself on the peaceful, matrilinear, and matrifocal (but not matriarchal) cultures of "Old Europe" and replaced it with a patriarchal warrior society,[26] a process visible in the appearance of fortified settlements and hillforts and the graves of warrior-chieftains: The process of Indo-Europeanization was a cultural, not a physical, transformation. The spread to Cape Breton and Patagonia occurred in modern times. [320] It is probably better termed an archaeological complex or archaeological horizon. According to Gamkrelidze and Ivanov, PIE words for material culture objects imply contact with more advanced peoples to the south, the existence of Semitic loan-words in PIE, Kartvelian (Georgian) borrowings from PIE, some contact with Sumerian, Elamite and others. [64] These new members were further incorporated by matrimonial alliances. Nomadic horse riders likely opened a steppe bridge between Europe and Asia, but recent genetic data raise more questions. An origin at the Pontic-Caspian steppes is the most widely accepted scenario of Indo-European origins. Search for the Indo-Europeans | Science This paleoecological crisis had a significant effect on the economy of the tribes in the Late Catacomb and Post-Catacomb time stipulating their higher mobility and transition to the nomadic cattle breeding. Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo Anthony considers it likely that the Maykop spoke a Northern Caucasian language not ancestral to Indo-European. Archaeologist Marija Gimbutas first proposed the Ukrainian origin, known as the kurgan hypothesis, in the 1950s. [248], The Balto-Slavic language group traditionally comprises the Baltic and Slavic languages, belonging to the Indo-European family of languages. Even today, the Ychromosomes of almost all men of Western European ancestry have a high percentage of Yamnaya-derived genes, suggesting that violent conquest may have been widespread. As the villagers tell it, long ago Nanda Devi left her home to visit a distant kingdom, where she was treated discourteously by the king and queen. These findings give the kurgan hypothesis a lot more credit, Nikitin says. Almost none of the skeletons were intact, and it was impossible to tell which bones belonged together or where they had originally lain. [110] According to Vasiliev, the Khvalynsk and Sredny Stog cultures show strong similarities, suggesting "a broad Sredny Stog-Khvalynsk horizon embracing the entire Pontic-Caspian during the Eneolithic. The Anatolian hypothesis asserts that people in Anatolia spoke Proto-Indo-European during the Neolithic era and that the language spread from there starting in 7000 BCE. [4][11] Theodor Poesche had proposed the nearby Pinsk Marshes. We dont want to discredit other peoples beliefs, but we dont want to censor our research based on those beliefs. [note 24][note 25], A Proto-Balto-Slavic language is reconstructable by the comparative method, descending from Proto-Indo-European by means of well-defined sound laws, and out of which modern Slavic and Baltic languages descended. [203] According to Mallory, around 2400 BCE the people of the Corded Ware replaced their predecessors and expanded to Danubian and northern areas of western Germany. The Phrygians (gr. [82] It developed from a base of languages spoken by Eastern European hunter-gatherers at the Volga steppe plains, with some influences from languages of northern Caucasus hunter-gatherers who migrated from the Caucasus to the lower Volga. DNA this old breaks up into short strands. [211][214], The Germanic peoples (also called Teutonic, Suebian or Gothic in older literature)[216] were an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group of Northern European origin, identified by their use of the Germanic languages which diversified out of Proto-Germanic starting during the Pre-Roman Iron Age. A jumble of bones from a poorly curated storage area would not have the consistency of age, type, diet, and genetics displayed by the Roopkund B remains. The spread of some or all of the proto-Indo-European branches would have been possible via the North Caucasus and Pontic region and from there, along with pastoralist expansions, to the heart of Europe. [note 28][web 29], Since 2004, an informal workgroup of scholars who support the Paleolithic Continuity hypothesis has been held online. The material on this site may not be reproduced, distributed, transmitted, cached or otherwise used, except with the prior written permission of Cond Nast. [250] Some linguists, however, reject the Balto-Slavic theory, believing that Baltic and Slavic languages evolved independently from Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic respectively. [311] Christopher I. Beckwith suggests that the Wusun, an Indo-European Caucasian people of Inner Asia in antiquity, were also of Indo-Aryan origin.[312]. The Roopkund B groupfrom the Mediterraneanlikely perished in a single event a thousand years later. The term is derived from kurgan (), a Turkic loanword in Russian for a tumulus or burial mound. The dead, it appeared, were most likely pilgrims. The set of Iranian-speaking peoples is thus considered a kind of unity, in spite of their distinct lineage identities plus all the factors which may have further differentiated any one group's sense of self.". (2015) shows that the people of the Sintashta culture are genetically related to those of the Corded Ware culture.[70]. Based on evidence from presumably non-Indo-European lexicon in the European branches of Indo-European, Iversen and Kroonen (2017) postulate a group of "Early European Neolithic" languages that is associated with the Neolithic spread of agriculturalists into Europe. The work has produced startling insights into who we are as a species, where we have come from, and what we have done to one another. The full genetic sequencing, however, indicated that about sixty per cent of the lineage of the local population was passed on, which shows that women were not killed but almost certainly subjected to widespread sexual coercion, and perhaps even mass rape. The Indian media company that made the film assembled a team of archeologists, anthropologists, geneticists, and technicians from research laboratories in India and the U.K. to collect and study the bones. [66][note 4], Since the 2000s genetic studies have been assuming a prominent role in the research on Indo-European migrations. [web 27], The Iranian peoples[note 27] (also known as Iranic peoples) are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group that comprise the speakers of Iranian languages. [342] In return the Wusun settled in the former territories of the Yuezhi as vassals of the Xiongnu. (2018), between 5,000 and 3,000 BCE, during the Copper Age, there was "extensive population contact between the Caucasus and the steppe,". [144], Radiocarbon gives dates as early as 3705 BCE on wooden tools and 2874 BCE on human remains for the Afanasievo culture. [web 25] The Kassites were polytheistic, and the name of some 30 gods are known. In Eastern Europe, Slavic and Germanic peoples assimilated and absorbed the native Iranian languages (Scythian and Sarmatian) of the region. [325] Finds within BMAC sites include an Elamite-type cylinder seal and a Harappan seal stamped with an elephant and Indus script found at Gonur-depe. [web 4] The Indo-European family includes most of the major current languages of Europe, of the Iranian plateau, of the northern half of the Indian Subcontinent, and of Sri Lanka, with kindred languages also formerly spoken in parts of ancient Anatolia and of Central Asia.
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